Incorporating Indigenous Knowledge into E-mobility technology development not only enables climate change mitigation, but also leverages the untapped potential of Kenya’s youth.

Introduction and background

Kenya’s transport sector currently contributes 11% of its total CO2 emissions and 67% of its energy-related emissions (AFEMA, 2024). These statistics are only set to rise. At 4.19%, Kenya has the highest motorisation rate in East Africa and has been projected to reach 70 vehicles per 1,000 persons by 2030. Therefore, the need to address CO2 emissions in transport in Kenya cannot be overemphasised. Kenya’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) outlines a commitment to a 32% reduction in net CO2 emissions by 2030. To this end, the country is actively working towards the swift adoption of e-mobility, namely electric vehicles (EVs). This shift is partially motivated by the need for climate action to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in transportation, with expectations that the sector will have matured by 2040, slightly later than the 2035 target set by leading vehicle manufacturing nations.

Kenya has limited industrial capacity (AFEMA, 2024). As a result, current policies favour importing EVs to facilitate quicker adoption by lowering the costs associated with accessing global supply chains and charging infrastructure, while simultaneously discouraging the import of gasoline vehicles. However, this approach could be preventing the country from exploiting the value of its Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) to develop and promote its green technologies. Substantial evidence indicates that linking e-mobility innovations to Kenya’s extensive IKS is essential for securing more employment opportunities. Unfortunately, while the transformation to e-mobility transportation in Kenya over the last five years has been remarkable, it does not indicate sufficient integration of IKS.

Indigenous and local knowledge systems encompass social and ecological knowledge, practices and beliefs regarding the interactions between living beings, including humans and their environments. This knowledge can offer insights, methods, theories and practices for sustainable ecosystem management (UNESCO, 2024). Africa is recognised for its vast IKS and endogenous technologies (Mgbeoji, 2007). Numerous examples demonstrate how African communities have maintained and leveraged their cultural knowledge to sustainably manage environmental and natural resources (Chikaire, Osuagwu, Oguegbuchulam, & Ngozi, 2012). Unfortunately, this Indigenous knowledge (IK) is often eclipsed by a top-down technology transfer model prioritising Western scientific knowledge. This dynamic frequently undermines Africa’s IKS (Muigua, 2021; Beckloff, 2008; Eyong, 2007).

In the context of e-mobility innovation, in particular the design of e-mobility vehicles and infrastructure, as well as the assembly, maintenance and repair of e-mobility kits, evidence of IK abounds. For example, the development of the Chukudu^[1] (a two-wheeled, handmade vehicle used in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo) and the Mkokoteni^[2] (a hand-pushed cart used to carry heavy or large quantities of goods in the busy Kenyan markets) demonstrates how informal IK and IKS have enabled entrepreneurs – often with no formal technology education – to create e-mobility products specific to their environment.

On this premise, promoting and recognising IKS might enhance both the production and consumption of e-mobility products. This, in turn, could significantly influence youth employment outcomes in e-mobility, particularly for women. One approach to boost employment is importing complete knock-down (CKD) kits for local assembly, which could generate jobs and facilitate knowledge transfer for assemblers. However, the key opportunity lies in harnessing IKS within the value chain of e-mobility innovations. IKS can enhance the R&D, industrial design, assembly and local manufacturing of EV components, as well as the establishment of after-sales support networks. Utilising IKS could also foster sustainable local innovation in e-mobility while contributing to the fight against climate change.

With this in mind, this paper analyses Kenya’s e-mobility policy and tech start-up landscapes to identify initiatives linking e-mobility innovations to IKS. Based on its findings, the paper suggests proactive measures to better utilise IKS throughout the country.

Kenya’s e-mobility ecosystem: what do we know?

According to the Ministry of Roads and Transport, the transport sector in Kenya consists of road, rail, aviation and maritime subsectors (Republic of Kenya, 2023). Driven by substantial infrastructure investments from both domestic and international sources, the sector has grown significantly (Kwoba & Mettke, 2020). For example, from 2002 to 2022, the transport sector expanded at an average annual rate of 13.3%, outpacing the economy’s overall growth of 11.8% during the same period (Republic of Kenya, 2024). E-mobility has likewise seen accelerated growth, with annual sales of EVs soaring from 65 in 2018 to 4,047 in 2023. This increase accounts for about 1.7% of all new vehicle sales and is projected to reach 5% by the end of this year, with a target of 100% by 2050. According to the International Trade Administration (2024), the advancement of e-mobility in Kenya is being driven by a vibrant start-up environment, enhanced governmental policy support and major investments in renewable energy. EPRA (2024) further reports that as of the end of June 2024, renewable energy constituted 90% of Kenya’s power mix. However, the average cost of power in Kenya remains high compared to its neighbours (Sindi, 2025)^[3]. Specific support for e-mobility startups has focused on tax incentives, infrastructure development and policy frameworks targeting unassembled motor vehicles and unassembled motorcycles.^[4][5] Further, amendments to these policies have also been drafted (amended unassembled motor vehicles procedures^[6] and amended unassembled motorcycles procedures^[7]) and are in the process of ratification. These support systems are supposed to raise demand with competitive prices for EVs, ease the challenges of adoption with access to charging infrastructure and remove policy barriers that inhibit the competitiveness of the startups with ‘traditional’ ICE (internal combustion engine, i.e., fossil fuel) vehicles. Additionally, the government, in collaboration with development partners, is promoting EV adoption through its State Corporation, which is working to implement favourable electricity supply rates for e-mobility via the Kenya Power Company. This includes initiatives for piloting EV fleets and establishing EV charging stations (KENIA, 2024).

Kenya has four primary motor vehicle assemblers: Associated Vehicle Assemblers (AVA) in Mombasa, Kenya Vehicle Manufacturers (KVM) in Thika (40km north of Nairobi), Isuzu East Africa Limited (ISUZU) in Nairobi and Transafrica Motors Limited (TML), also in Mombasa. Collectively, by 2019, these assemblers had a recorded investment of USD 148 million, yet they had only achieved 20% utilisation against their declared capacity (KAM, 2020) implying they had idle capacity to be exploited by any required local assembly. In this reflection, there is a question of whether contributions of Indigenous knowledge (IK) from emerging e-mobility startups could enhance the utilisation capacity of these assemblers. It may be, for example, that these startups are developing innovations whose commercialisation will spur local EV manufacturing and assembly. The Government of Kenya is supporting this by offering incentives for locally-sourced assembly components, encouraging technology transfer, strengthening manufacturing and fostering industry linkages and R&D (MITED, 2022).

This progress is not without its challenges, most of which stem from the lack of a comprehensive e-mobility strategy, high upfront costs of EVs and batteries, inadequate charging infrastructure, skill shortages, insufficient demand and ineffective policies and tax incentives. Regarding the latter, all EVs incur a 25% import duty and an excise duty of 10%, compared to 20% excise duty for ICE vehicles. To stimulate investment in local manufacturing, unassembled EV kits are charged a reduced import duty of 10% and are exempt from excise duty. Conversely, both lithium-ion batteries and EV charging infrastructure face a 25% import duty. Moreover, all imports are subject to 16% VAT, and all CKD importers must possess a designated assembler’s facility with a customs-bonded warehouse (KRA, 2021). The E-mobility Association of Kenya (EMAK) and other stakeholders are actively advocating for further reductions and exemptions from e-mobility taxes for both CKD kits and Fully Built Units (FBUs). In response, the government has developed several draft policies that are at various stages of enactment, including the Draft National E-Mobility Policy, the Tax Procedures (Unassembled Motor Vehicles and Trailers – Amendment) Regulations 2024 and the Tax Procedures (Unassembled Motorcycles – Amendment) Regulations 2024.

Indigenous knowledge linkages to e-mobility

Although existing policies have attempted to link IKS to the development and adoption of EVs by imposing requirements for a proportion of parts to be sourced from local suppliers, these linkages remain weak, whether in production or repairs. Therefore, assemblers who are importing CKDs for EVs often miss their obligations to produce components locally. New policies have attempted to resolve this by setting phased compliance targets for local content. Nevertheless, without incentives and support for innovators using IK, it will be difficult for them to meet industry standards for these components. It is also expensive to produce local content due to input taxes, the cost of energy and the lack of order quantities. There is also the problem of inadequate capacity for local innovators who hope to leverage IKS to establish their manufacturing and assembly plants. Suffice to say that the ‘Buy Kenya Build Kenya’ initiative informs the spirit of building local technical capacity and skills to enhance the country’s economic outlook.

IKS in e-mobility in Kenya exists both in the formal and informal sectors. In the formal sector, there are mobility spin-offs from innovation hubs inside and outside academic institutions. Others are purely entrepreneurial entities created by young, enterprising Kenyans across all regions in the country. How innovators in endogenous settings respond to the opportunities of e-mobility is what forms the foundations of e-mobility adoption social systems, thus generating the e-mobility IKS. Such innovation responses have included attempts at local EV designing, retrofitting, nascent manufacturing, local assembly, importing and reselling, EV battery assembly, and EV charging infrastructure installations. One success story is Ecomobilus’ 500kg electric cargo cart dubbed ‘eMkoko’, which is an adaptation of age-old local IK of the Kenyan ‘mkokoteni’ design^[8]. The systematisation of this IK into a formal IKS is being achieved with the intervention of Kenyatta University’s Chandaria BIIC, which is working with the R&D structures of the School of Engineering to achieve industrial-standard production of the eMkoko. The company reports that the EV was designed from scratch and that much of the content was put together locally, including the carry tray, the chassis and the lithium battery assembled from second-life cells. However, the powertrain and EV electronics were imported. The prototype EV is now in use for agricultural transport, and the company is in the process of commercialisation under a university-industry assembly and manufacturing partnership. This story is a strong example of the role of IKS in providing local solutions for EVs in Kenya and sub-Saharan Africa.

The price of EVs compared to ICE cars remains high across all EV supply innovation models. This is mainly due to the high Free on Board (FOB) cost of EVs in global supply markets, primarily influenced by battery costs. Local innovators have adopted the strategy of selling EVs separately from batteries and offering battery leasing as a service. This approach, taken by BasiGo, has provided a significant competitive advantage^[9]” data-bs-spy=”scroll”>⁹. Recently, BasiGo secured USD 42 million in funding to deploy 1,000 electric buses in Kenya and Rwanda (Lunalo, 2024). A few innovators using IK, including Roam Electric, Arc Ride and Ecomobilus, have focused on assembly and manufacturing. Linncell Technologies Limited, for example, has established an EV design line for persons with disabilities and is also building custom utility scooters for water and gas delivery^[10]. Other local innovators are retrofitting two- and three-wheeler ICEs into electric versions. In doing so, these innovators have not only given the ICE vehicles a new lease of life, the companies themselves have become springboards of IK transfer.

These startups face more challenges than those who opt for full importation. Their primary hurdle is scalability due to the high cost of low-order assembly kits and a lack of tax incentives. Nevertheless, they are gaining rapid traction compared to those focusing on the mere import of FBUs. This is partly informed by the continuous improvement of their products and application of locally-oriented solutions in the design of the vehicles and their charging stations. This can be seen in the case of lithium batteries, which, though they are vital for EVs, are not only expensive, but are classified as hazardous materials, creating additional shipping regulations. As a result, some importers use lead-acid batteries, which, due to their limited lifespan and low efficiency, generate a lot of waste. Local innovators in this domain include Enviroserve^[11]. This company runs an e-waste collection centre that separates and breaks down waste for recycling and safe disposal. With the shortage of cost-effective new lithium cells for local lithium battery assemblers, the company uses an industry-standard lithium cell grading machine and then re-charges the cells to assemble lithium batteries. In partnership with Ecomobilus^[12], Enviroserve is sourcing second-life lithium cells for e-mobility batteries, thereby applying IK in lithium cells to contribute to the local battery supply chain and create employment, support climate-resilient economic growth and stem the problems of environmental pollution and climate change.

The availability of charging infrastructure remains a serious problem, especially for regions outside Kenya’s major cities. This has made it difficult for 100% EVs to venture far from the city limits. It has also been found that EV charging infrastructures lack interoperability, thus limiting the ability of operators to access vendor-agnostic charging infrastructures. Therefore, two- and three-wheel EVs must rely on slow, domestic, Level 1 chargers, thus limiting operations during working hours. The infrastructure is also haphazard and uncoordinated, such that nobody knows how many charging stations exist, where they are located or what EV charging requirements they support. The level of IK in the innovation and operation of charging infrastructure is also inadequate. The Energy and Petroleum Regulatory Authority (EPRA) is responsible for issuing guidelines for EV charging infrastructure. It provides a special tariff of USD 0.12 per kWh during peak periods and USD 0.058 per kWh during off-peak periods. This tariff is about 60% cheaper than the regular tariff, but its administration does not benefit the users because power metering does not distinguish between the two tariffs. Exacerbating the problem, the EPRA’s guidelines do not recognise IKS in power generation for mobility.

There is a clear gap to be filled here. For instance, IK for e-mobility is emerging through micro solar installations for EV charging. Linncell Technologies, which is owned by a youth living with a disability, has installed a solar system to supply the business with power and charge two- and three-wheel EVs. It also repairs and rebuilds solar inverters and chargers to help its EV customers install their charging stations for secondary and, at times, primary power sources for those off-grid. The linkage of this IKS according to EPRA guidelines would help diversify the sources of EV charging power and catalyse access in the rural areas poorly served with grid power.

These innovations aside, the supply of formal technical expertise for e-mobility remains inadequate. Only a few local institutions, such as Spiro Academy, AfricaNEV, Advanced Mobility, Strathmore University and the Technical University of Kenya provide training in e-mobility technical skills. The National Industrial Training Authority (NITA) has yet to establish a curriculum for Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET), and existing programmes lack standardisation. This presents an opportunity to integrate informal IK into formal curricula. For example, some local institutions employ an apprenticeship model to deliver short training courses to address the skill-gaps. Other tech teams have opted for online training programmes offered by foreign institutions. Informal IK consists of skills and knowledge acquired through self-taught IKS. It is both hands-on and tailored for user-context-oriented problems, yielding better product design outcomes.

The Government of Kenya has introduced a system called Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) to provide formal certification of such skills and competencies^[13]. However, there are no government controls to regulate informal IKS for e-mobility skills development. Therefore, institutions such as the Kenya Power Company are running programmes to ensure that their fleet operators are skilled in EV troubleshooting, servicing and repairs. The intention is that IKS are supported as they organically transition into formal programmes. The Ministry of Education requires the right forums to initiate this process. During a recent Ministry of Education Science congress, students showcased innovative EV designs using materials collected from their environments. The capacity of these students to grasp the technology is a clear indication of the huge potential that exists to harness IKS for innovation. Observed IKS for e-mobility, therefore, includes oral and written curricula, practical and experiential development of e-mobility artefacts, and environmental climate actions.

Beyond formal start-ups, the informal sector – referred to as ‘jua kali’ (which means ‘hot sun’ due to the working environment) – and light industries are altogether ignored by the existing e-mobility policies. This is a significant oversight. This sector has long played a critical role through its nascent efforts to produce machinery and appliances as an alternative to importing goods. IK in this space is demonstrated through a myriad of creative, artisanal innovators who make do with recycled and locally-sourced materials to make household and industrial products. If empowered, they would have the potential to create the desired homegrown solutions for lithium battery repair and the manufacture and assembly of a range of EV components.

The way forward

Following our review, it is clear that policies within the transportation sector need to be revised to incorporate IK provisions. In particular, a policy in favour of local EV manufacturing over importing FBUs should be implemented. Kenya, having forfeited many taxes to drive the adoption of EVs for climate action, should also provide policy frameworks to help e-mobility companies leverage their climate mitigation impacts in carbon markets. An adequate EV assembly policy should not only specify the requirements of assemblers to include local content, it should also establish the support structures local EV innovation startups need to produce and supply their products to EV assemblers cost-effectively.

A system of incentives must also be designed for innovators aiming to utilise IK innovation. For instance, these innovators should be given access to industrial parks or special economic zones (SEZs) with support structures for R&D and manufacturing and better energy tariffs. Similarly, innovators in charging and swapping infrastructure who opt to use solar charging infrastructure could be given guaranteed access to special energy tariffs and tax incentives. They could also be given rent-free spaces in public spaces along major highways. Fiscal incentives to lower the cost of EVs should be more inclined towards innovators doing assembly and manufacturing rather than imported FBUs. There is also a need for comprehensive tax exemptions for all unassembled EV parts. To stimulate increased private investment in EV assembly and manufacturing, plant and machinery for EV manufacturing and assembly should be zero-rated, and the HS code homologation of the manufactured vehicles should be streamlined. An affirmative framework to enhance women’s inclusivity in e-mobility is also necessary, considering the disproportionate challenges that women face at work. Women-friendly EV designs, especially those of motorcycles and bicycles, should be lighter and more comfortable, and financial inclusion initiatives like low-interest loans targeting women, youth and people with disabilities should be explored (Esafiri, 2024).

Partnerships with foreign assemblers and manufacturers should be promoted to facilitate technology transfer and establish plants in Kenya. Existing groups such as KEPSA, KAM and EMAK should seek to strengthen linkages to local IK and advocate for tax incentives. They should create frequent forums for local e-mobility innovators to network, collaborate and partner to enhance their competitive capacity and reduce small inefficiencies. Artisanal fabricators will need special consideration so they can be mainstreamed as a critical foundation of e-mobility industrialisation. They should be assisted in getting Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) certification and be given access to zero-rated EV parts the same way the formal manufacturers access unassembled components.

There is a need to expand the focus of EVs to consider applications beyond passenger and cargo transport. For example, EVs are being applied in agriculture (for ploughing and other on-farm activities), construction machinery, domestic and industrial applications such as hospitals, and to aid people with disabilities. Emerging, local, Indigenous innovators are designing EVs to address these needs. However, such EVs are not included in the scope of existing EV policies.

To scale IKS, its forms must be enshrined in the guiding e-mobility policies. These efforts must also be initiated in the formal Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that Kenya is implementing across all levels of education. Science Congress (Young Scientist Kenya) activities, R&D and other forums where new IK is being discovered should be marked and mainstreamed^[14]. Academic and research institutions, including development partners, must invest more in action and applied research on current issues affecting this sector. An immediate need is for Science Parks to provide Academia Production Units for innovation spin-offs, especially in e-mobility. To support research in EVs, products and components bought for this purpose should be zero-rated. Institutions charged with curriculum development will need to make an urgent call for their stakeholders to initiate the development of a curriculum for e-mobility at all levels of education and technical training. Such training should incorporate apprenticeship training for the many mechanics servicing traditional fossil fuel (ICE) vehicles, who will soon be expected to service the increasing number of EVs in the market.

Finally, given that close to 25% of Kenya is off-grid, incentives should be created to attract investment in local charging infrastructure, especially in rural areas, and ensure universal access to e-mobility and overcome the problem of range anxiety. In this regard, IK can be exploited through Indigenous innovators in solar energy harvesting for e-mobility. Likewise, local IK on the standardisation and interoperability of charging infrastructure remains to be utilised, as do innovations in resource mapping for charging infrastructure, which can be achieved by local innovators in mobile apps that update riders and drivers on the profile and proximity of charging stations on a given route. These local innovators should be encouraged to design and build chargers appropriate for the vehicles in use in Kenya. Meanwhile, policies must be established to set the charging design standards.

Conclusions

This paper has reviewed the linkage of e-mobility to local Indigenous knowledge (IK) in Kenya. It has shed light on what has worked and what has not arisen from policy and non-policy interventions. The aim was to understand how e-mobility greentech can best address the trilemma of climate mitigation, climate-resilient economic development and the creation of youth employment. The overall finding is that the Government of Kenya is taking steps to drive the adoption of EVs with a careful focus on encouraging industrialisation through enhanced local content in assembly and manufacturing. However, it has not provided the framework e-mobility enterprises need to tap into local Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS). As such, local EV innovators have not been given sufficient attention. In the case of those retrofitting ICEs to EVs, the framework should be scaled to encourage this conversion and avoid the dumping of the traditional ICE vehicles that will be disposed of in the process of transitioning to EVs. It was also found that local EV assemblers are having difficulties meeting the required levels of local content (volume of components sourced locally) from the available IKS. This implies a weak capacity of IK innovators to supply industry-standard parts needed for vehicle assembly, thus perpetuating the import of assembly kits.

Due to the significant capital required to establish assembly plants that meet regulatory requirements, the current environment poses steep challenges for e-mobility tech startups interested in manufacturing. Furthermore, policy has yet to address the certification of locally-assembled EVs and parts, which is obstructing the registration of new EVs made fully in Kenya. The conclusion is that Kenya’s e-mobility policies have missed out on measures and means to strengthen local IK linkages to e-mobility. Thus, the requirements for local content in vehicle assembly may not be met unless universities and local innovators are encouraged to produce some of the components used in EV assembly and manufacturing. Their products should also be protected with intellectual property registration to avoid loss to competitors in the global supply chain, from which some of the assembly components will be outsourced.

Endnotes

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chukudu.

[2] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_pushed_cart_(mkokoteni).jpg.

[3] https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/east-african-energy-outlook-kenyas-power-paradox-high-sindi-ph-d-lesnf.

[4] Kenya Law (2019). The tax procedures (unassembled motor vehicles and trailers) (amendment) regulations 2019″

[5] Kenya Law (2023). The tax procedures (unassembled motorcycles) regulations legal notice 112 of 2020.

[6] KRA (2024a). The draft tax procedures (unassembled motor vehicle and trailers) (amendment) regulations, 2024.

[7] KRA (2024b). The tax procedures (unassembled motorcycles – amendment) regulations 2024.

[8] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnrR484u3NE&t=38s.

[9] https://www.basi-go.com/pricing.

[10] https://www.facebook.com/p/Linccell-technology-100063485472712/.

[11] https://enviroserve.co.ke/.

[12] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnrR484u3NE.

[13] https://knqa.go.ke/service/recognition-of-prior-learning/.

[14] https://ysk.co.ke/https://www.linkedin.com/posts/samuelwaweru2001_i-enjoyed-every-bit-of-it-activity-7130406249896042497-PSmt/?trk=public_profile_like_view.